Youthful Encounter with a Royal Palace  

George Stuart remembers his lifelong affinity 

for Versailles and the royal residents.

Palace of Versailles today.

When I was quite young, I had my first encounter with the Palace of Versailles and an introduction to its most famous occupants: Marie Antoinette and Louis XVI. 

Years later in 1951, I constructed the first pair of what were to be called the Historical Figures: a depiction of Louis XVI in his robes of state followed later by a second figure that was to be his queen, Marie Antoinette. 

Archduchess Maria Antonia (c. 1765)

One of Empress Maria Theresa’s fifteen children and youngest daughter, she was raised in the imperial splendors of Vienna’s Schönbrunn Palace. She had little formal education except some music and art. She was contracted in marriage to the heir to the French throne when she was fourteen but looked forward to a future at the famous French court. 

As the years passed, I became better educated about my subjects, especially Marie Antoinette, so her history evolved into an ideal “story.” I did realize that the average American audience knew little history, although with a secondary education, one probably heard of Lincoln, George Washington, and maybe King George III of England.  

Marie Antoinette at Trianon (c. 1780)

After a childless marriage of nearly eight years, she bore a daughter in 1778 followed by a son in 1781. Her husband, Louis XVI, gave her a private palace (Petit Trianon) and a farm. She and her friends withdrew to these getaways to escape both the duties of court and the public. The Queen was able to fulfill her idolized dream of living like a “simple peasant” especially at the farm, albeit a very expensive “simplicity.”

One might also have read of  Marie Antoinette, as her name was the personification of the frivolous, besotted, self-indulgent queen famous, “Let them eat cake!” She lost her head when the people rose up against the cruel royal oppressors, so while these made good stories, the descriptions of the queen were false. 

Over the years, the monologs evolved, and I discovered that “real” and factual history made for the best story. A case in point is the accusation that she arranged the purchase of an exorbitantly priced diamond necklace --she did no such thing. 

Marie Antoinette in Ball Gown (c.1790)

The Historical Figure of Marie Antoinette went through some seven revisions and improvements over the years; so did the clarity of her life experience. These real stories turned her into a genuine human being with barely above average talents. In truth, either by luck or circumstance, she simply found herself caught in a critical moment of history.

Marie Antoinette with her children from painting by Vigee Le Brun.

It is easy to look back now and see what opportunities Marie Antoinette seemingly had at her disposal to change history. Regrettably, she was tried by those circumstances, found wanting, and finally she paid with a miserable death! Fortunately, it’s easy for listeners of her story to see themselves in her shoes and imagine what they might have done in a similar situation. Now that’s what makes for a good story!

If there was ever a character from modern history who is relevant today, it is Marie Antoinette. Her story parallels the attitudes and actions of so many Americans. First, she was born surrounded by excess and privilege. As a teenage princess, she was contracted in marriage to the heir to the French throne. Then in 1774, she and her husband became king and queen of France when they were only 18 years old. At this time, France was descending into financial disaster. To be more exact, the treasury was bankrupt, and the government was unable to raise revenues because the privileged classes refused to contribute funds to the national emergency.

Marie Antoinette’s husband, King Louis XVI, was a well-meaning man who believed that his duty was to preserve his inherited regime. His inclinations were often progressive and generous, but he was surrounded by reactionaries who were threatened by any form of taxation. For more than half a century, the intellectuals and progressives of France discussed the possibility for a constitutional government, but nothing changed. Even though Marie and Louis had all the information and methods on hand to make constructive change, they did nothing. Instead, the queen chose to ignore these issues and did not encourage her husband to use his role as king to guide change.

On the other hand, King Louis did appoint excellent ministers who strove to solve the fiscal difficulties. Unfortunately, when they presented reforms, the reactionaries around the king urged him to reject them. This is precisely where the Queen could have stepped in to strengthen King Louis’ will, but she did nothing!

King Louis XVI failed to act in the face of change.

History reveals the disastrous results of inaction along with the horrors that followed the King and Queen. Like the reactionaries of the past, many Americans today choose to close their eyes to reform because of fear of change or of a diminished lifestyle.

Marie Antoinette - The Widow Capet (c.1793)

The revolution of 1789 overwhelmed the royal family, and they were imprisoned in 1790. Their titles were abolished, as was the monarchy, and the former king was tried for treason and beheaded. Marie Antoinette was separated from her children and also placed on trial. She had become the primary object of scorn, and her trial attempted to publicly humiliate her. Although this effort failed, she was still sentenced to death in October 1793.

Marie Antoinette at Guillotine (10/16/1793)

Following eight weeks of vicious treatment at the hands of her jailers, the former queen was made to dress in white (widow’s clothing might attract sympathy) and paraded through the streets of Paris in a hay cart to the place of execution. As further humiliation, her hands were tied behind her back and her hair hacked off to prevent the blade from “fouling.” She comported herself with great dignity that day and died with remarkable courage. She had become the symbol of all that was corrupt with the “ancient regime.”

Furthermore, they often refuse to vote, do not inform themselves on the issues, or they listen to demigods who pander to their worst inclinations. And unfortunately, like the people of France, this lack of action only hastens the possible ruin of the nation. Perhaps taking a lesson from the not-so-distant past and paying attention to the real issues is the key to staying informed and… keeping our heads!                                           - G.S. Stuart

PUBLISHER’S NOTE

We are pleased to welcome aboard Margaret de la M, who recently volunteered to edit Mr. Stuart’s articles for Figuratively Speaking Newsletter, our Blog and other media outlets.  Ms. De la M teaches college level English writing skills, so we will all benefit!  This article is their first collaboration, with many interesting works to follow.   —Leroy Becker

The Lincoln Biography

Finding Lincoln

I began my career as a monologist in 1959, my focus was on the history of England and Europe. This is what my studies and research had prepared me for. In late 1962 my managers told me I should prepare a monolog on American subjects. My audiences were Americans who wanted to hear their own history. I contested the notion, and declared the audiences would want to hear something new to them. I was contradicted and told it was just the opposite – Americans wanted to hear about what they knew and familiar to them. Perplexed and dumbfounded, I had to consider the wishes of the professionals representing me.

That year I was booked for the mid-west. While I had a few days layover in Chicago, I decided to look into a talk on Abraham Lincoln. I went down to Springfield, saw the Lincoln home and neighborhood. But having heard of the village of "New Salem" where Lincoln spent several years, I decided to visit that site.

My hotel agreed to arrange for a limousine to take me out to the location. This was February and the "village," an historic site was closed for the season, yet this proved to be a remarkable experience.

Rutledge Tavern                      Photo by Larry Senalik

Without the crowds and covered in snow, the reconstructed village appeared much as it had in the 1830s. We tramped around in the snow, peering into windows and taking in the setting. The Rutledge Inn was still in operation as the site caretaker’s home, and we were invited inside for coffee and cake. Sitting by the original fireplace with the friendly hosts and their stories of New Salem's history and restoration, I had the surreal feeling of being transported back in time. Overall it was one of the most remarkable "research" experiences I've ever had.


Later that week I visited the Chicago Historical Society Museum, where I was graciously received and my request to see some of Lincoln’s clothes was granted. This also proved to be a one-of-a-kind moment. I was taken to a small room with table and chair. Minutes later a staff member entered with an arm load of clothing, a hat, an umbrella and placed them on the table and left! I was all alone with Lincoln’s clothes – no gloves, no staff oversight.

Lincoln's Clothes                             photo from Huffington Post

I measured and made notes as fast as I could and before I was interrupted I tried on Lincoln’s hat! It sank down over my small skull, almost to my chin - Lincoln had a large head. This was an extraordinary research experience, one that would never be possible today. I will remember that moment always!

With these site visits, many biographies, and the help of Dr. Jay Monaghan and the Wyles Library (UCSB), The Smithsonian Institution, the Henry Ford Museum in Dearborn, I embarked on a biographical study of Lincoln, illustrated with portrait Figures (now in the Museum of Ventura County Collection). My objective was a visual record of Lincoln at various stages of his life.

The Rail Splitter
The early portrait as the famous “rail splitter was our starting point. Many artists have attempted this image before me. We all worked from the literary descriptions and, while each had his own interpretation, there are distinct threads of similarity throughout all efforts.

Lincoln as Rail Splitter in 1832

The Springfield Lawyer
The next represented his Springfield days as lawyer and politician in the Illinois legislature. This was also the time of his marriage and family development. His appearance in the white suit is derived from photos of him his sensible summer suit of white linen.

Lincoln as Young Springfield Lawyer 1858

The New President
The third image was to show his new beard on the day of his inauguration in 1860, and to show that he had yet to abandon his out-of-date blanket or shawl, which was being replaced in most men’s wardrobes. A number of his shawls have survived; the one copied here is in the Smithsonian.

Lincoln as a new President in 1861

The Thoughtful Chief Executive
The next portrait was a pensive pose with glasses and something he was reading or studying. Inspired by either the address he was to give at Gettysburg or his previous decision to issue the emancipation proclamation.

Lincoln as Chief Executive in 1863

The Tragic End
Finally the tragic portrait of his last moments at the Ford Theater. He was ill and dying of Marfan’s disease, a slow and debilitating illness. The cost of the war, the responsibilities of his office and personal tragedies were prodigious for any human to bare. He was emaciated from illness and shrunken by life, but they say he was happy that night with the end of the carnage and the delight he always took in the theatre. Perhaps there was just a trace of a smile in his face. It would all be over momentarily.

Lincoln at Ford Theater in 1865

 My business manager was correct. The Lincoln monolog has been the most popular piece I’ve ever attempted. I’ve learned to love it as well. Abraham Lincoln is an irresistible subject for all time. 

 Editor's Note - Mr. Stuart created many supporting characters for the Lincoln biography, including among others Ann Rutledge, Mary Lincoln in 1842, Mary Lincoln in 1863, Stephen A.Douglas, Edwin M.Stanton, Ulysses S.Grant, Jefferson Davis, Robert E. Lee, Enslaved African, John Wilkes Booth.

Notes from George Stuart . . .

Empress Revised

Russian Empress Elizabeth I debuts new gown. 

When I discovered I was in the good company (many artists ‘reworked’ previously finished pieces: Mozart, Rubens, Tennyson), I felt comfortable re-doing earlier Historical Figures. Obvious errors in judgment and questionable craftsmanship continued to nag me. Many of the Figures have therefore been changed or modified over the years.

Empress Elizabeth Petrovna (Russia) is among the latest to receive a revision. It turned into a one year plus effort, with three of us taking nine months to just produce the ornamental passementerie border of the gown. Researching the correct style for her period, finding a suitable fabric and enhancing that fabric, took weeks with alternating delays, mistakes and makeovers. The project was finished just before things got out-of-hand! I think the results of our frustrations were worth it.  - G. S.

Nixon Sparks Collection

Tzu An Empress— unseen beauty under vest.

The Manchu Figures were begun in the 1970s, with Mr. Nixon's discovery of China! I thought it an ideal subject for American audiences. I soon discovered that Chinese embroidery would be a huge obstacle to surmount. The first phase of that work was produced in Taiwan, in the '70s. A second attempt in the '80s was halted because we lost connection with the Taiwan embroiderers. It wasn’t until 2001, and through the internet, that we found embroiders in mainland China. They were the embroiderers that, for centuries, had produced the exquisitely embroidered garments of the Imperial court!

Director, Mr. LU Zhengliang  of the Suchow Embroidery Works was intrigued by the idea of creating the appropriate designs in one quarter scale to fit the Historical Figures. The results are beyond remarkable and the quality is comparable to anything done in the Chien Lung, 18^th Century. The embroidery alone makes these Figures priceless!  - G. S.       

Mr. Schiffer

As we age we do not like any form of change in our routine or lifestyle. The recent departure of our MVC Director Tim Schiffer has been a real change for us all.

I was here at the first year the Museum opened at its present site. I have seen five directors come and go. Each time has been a bit of a drama.

Mr. Schiffer’s association with the Museum has been the longest, if memory serves. And, it has been my good fortune to have worked with him from the beginning, in complete
harmony. A “first” I needn’t add. 

Even though he had responsibility for the entire Museum operation with all its demands and special needs, he always made me feel that the Figures collection was important enough to give it his attention when needed.

He and his staff worked with me to enhance the Smith Gallery, and budgeting was found for an elaborate and much-needed conservation process to save the Figures.

Mr. Schiffer managed the Smith Endowment to make possible some magnificent embellishments on several Figures.  All of this was done with grace and encouragement.

This Curator Emeritus is very grateful for these past years with Mr. Schiffer as Director. The Historical Figures Collection can only hope for similar support in the next administration.
Mr. Schiffer will be missed.    
 

Political Strategist Niccolo Machiavelli Joins Renaissance Historical Figures

Niccolo Machiavelli  (1469- 1527) by George Stuart

In the five hundred years since his death, the reputation of Niccolo Machiavelli has risen to where he is now considered the major political thinker and strategist of the Renaissance.  His most famous writing, The Prince has been  read and studied by generations worldwide. The pamphlet is a distillation insights Machiavelli gained during his years as a diplomat in the turbulent times around 1500.

Renaissance Italy is credited by many for bringing the Europe out of the Dark Ages. The period around the beginning of the 16th century was particularly interesting to George Stuart. While art and science flourished in the northern City States, the collision of politics, power and religion was leaving Italy, and most of Europe in a constant state of war and turmoil.

Nothing in politics was simple and little was as it seemed or represented. Alliances were made and broken, princes rose and fell, armies marched pillaged nearly everywhere.

In this chaos in 1492 and again in 1527, the city state of Florence (Fiorenze ) ousted the famous and infamous De Medici dynasty and established a republic. With no standing army, Florence appeased the French armies with bribes and depended on extraordinary political intelligence to assess the powers of Europe and to stay in their favor, or at least out of their way.

Their eyes and ears at the Vatican and the courts of France, Spain and Naples was an obscure second level diplomatic envoy called Niccolo Machiavelli. With no military power and only modest funds, Florence depended on the communications from Machiavelli to report on court politics and to assess how the fledgeling republic might remain out of the clutches of the much bigger players. 

In his recent biography of Machiavelli, Miles J.Unger describes how the young Florentine came to this position and how his political observations and weak negotiating strength led him to write The Prince. The political treatise was essentially a job application he presented to the returning De Medici. Machiavelli was rebuffed, but his treatise has become a must-read for princes, politicians and businessmen alike.

"The Prince," the most famous job application'?

 "Although [the Prince] is relatively short, the treatise is the most remembered of his works and the one most responsible for bringing the word "Machiavellian" into wide usage as a pejorative term. It also helped make "Old Nick" an English term for the devil, and even contributed to the modern negative connotations of the words "politics" and "politician" in western countries." -  Wikipedia.

Unger paints a less sinister view of Machiavelli as a typical, middle class male looking for work in the bureaucracy of Florence. His writing ability was demonstrated in popular plays and commentaries. His talent, and some help, landed him a government job in the foreign affairs department.

Machiavelli avoided politics, and could speak to all sides of contemporary issues. In his writings however, Machiavelli favored a Florence as republic over a principality.

Florence had a history of paying large ransoms to keep invading armies, so the city was rarely sacked and much of the 16th century buildings, art treasures and Renaissance flavor remains today.  But when it came to the defense of Florence, Machiavelli was a hawk by today's standard. He advocated a standing citizens army augmented by mercenaries. Machiavelli had no military training or battle experience, so his plans were plausible in theory, but fell short on details of execution, and were not adopted by the republic.

His position for many years as emissary to the Vatican and the thrones of European power afforded the opportunity to observe, assess and write about power politics. Ultimately he had little choice. As the representative of a weak but moderately wealthy city state, Machiavelli soon recognized that wits had to trump war or Florence would cease to exist as a republic, or even an independent city state. He had good reason for concern. After all, the neighboring Papal States were once independent.

One gets the feeling from Unger's book that Machiavelli was fascinated by the art of diplomacy - or the lack there of -  in the foreign affairs of Florence. Yet his thinking on the topic seems clearly objective and rational. Indeed, one gets the feeling he was as exacting and cautious as if a medieval philosopher dissecting a rare insect.

In service of the republic, Machiavelli was a tireless traveler and worker, spending many consecutive months away from his family, friends and associates. His superiors came to depend on his dispatches of fact and assessment from the capitols of Europe. Although his reports were insightful and his advice often followed, he was not promoted or financially rewarded.

When Florence returned to De Medici control, Machiavelli lost his position. He then wrote The Prince to prove his worth to the reinstated De Medici family and gain their favor.  In spite of some connections within the De Medici family, he was not accepted. Perhaps in the end he was too republican. Only after his death did friends publish The Prince - and the rest is history!

    

See Machiavelli in Ventura!

On March 6th, Stuart's Machiavelli will join the other Historical Figures of the Renaissance and Reformation in an exhibit running until May 20, 2012 at the Museum of Ventura County. Mr. Stuart will give three entertaining monologs on the period over the next few months. We are all looking forward to his take on Machiavelli and his times.  

Arizona Centenial Exhibition inTucson Features Father Kino

Father Eusebio Kino.

 
Historical Figures to Illustrate Arizona History in Statehood Centennial Celebration at the
Mini Time Machine Museum
January 31 - April 14, 2012.

The Mini Time Machine is an elegant, new boutique Museum for historical miniatures. The staff had wanted to exhibit George Stuart’s Historical Figures, and the Arizona centennial became the perfect reason. With encouragement and support of HFF Director Pat Bergen, an exhibit of fourteen Figures is scheduled to open in Tucson on January 31 and run through April 14, 2012.

New Mini Time Machine Museum in Tucson

What do Historical Figures and Arizona have in common? Lots, it turns out. We all share common “roots” with many of the Movement West Figures, going back to Spain and later to Mexico. That is why the exhibit will include 14 Figures spanning 400 years from Queen Isabella, King Ferdinand and Christopher Columbus to the conquest and colonization of Mexico and the American Southwest. Other Figures: Pope Alexander VI, Moctezuma, , Hérnan Cortés, Malinche, Leopard Warrior, Jedediah Smith, Kit Carson, Abraham Lincoln, John Fremont & wife Jessie Fremont—each with their own contribution to the Arizona saga.

The popular Figure of the beloved Father Eusebio Kino will lead the entourage! As George Stuart says,"The Austrian Jesuit Father Eubesio Kino was dauntless in his travels through the barren deserts of the Sonora and Baja regions of Mexico. His maps and charts were in use up to the end of the 19th century, and his missions still stand today. It is believed that he introduced cattle ranching to the west."

Mr. Stuart will give a special monolog at the museum on January 29.

Historical Figures Foundation to Produce Renaissance Festival

Carnevale Ventura to feature historical faire, costume balls, fashion shows and more!

Traditional and Current Venetian Costumes to mix in Ventura 

George Stuart depicted Juan Borgia (left) of the infamous Borgia family in full carnevale regalia of the early 16th century. His playboy activities may have led to his murder, perhaps by one of his two brothers Cesare or Gioffre.

For a week in February of 2013, Ventura will host a series of events celebrating the historic period of the Italian Renaissance. These were the times of Michelangelo and de Vinci, vibrant city states and families of the infamous Borgia, Medici and Sforza. Through the centuries, pre-Lenten festivals featured revelers dressed in elaborate and elegant costumes replete with exotic masks.

Historical and entertaining activities are scheduled for Friday through Sunday, February 8 to 10, 2013 in downtown beautiful Ventura. Events currently being planned include – 

• Traditional 15^th Century Renaissance Faire in Mission Park
• Doge’s Masked Ball and entertaining performances 
• Period Costume Fashion Shows 
• “How to” classes by professional costume and mask designers 
• Contests for traditional carnival costumes and masks 
• Renaissance Historical Figures® at Museum of Ventura County 
• George Stuart performances about the Italian Renaissance 
• Renaissance dishes, drink and décor featured at many restaurants

The Carnevale Ventura is a regional event, with invitations going to Period costuming enthusiasts and the general public throughout California. 

Exotic costumes from "Venice Carnevale 2010" presentation.

 Revelers are strongly encouraged to elegantly dress and mask in traditional Italian Renaissance attire or modern Venetian carnival-style finery. For more information, visit the Carnevale Ventura website. 


Carnevale Ventura is a production of the Carnevale Ventura Commission, an activity of the Historical Figures Foundation.

Borgia Pope Alexander's Vestments & Regalia Gain Interest

  

Introduction

There is a growing interest in everything Renaissance since the SHOWTIME Borgia Series began. Among the clothing styles of the time, only papal vestments and regalia seem to have survived nearly unchanged in design. 

Actually each Pope  was given or had made many new garments and accessories. Over the centuries, dozens of variations of each have been created each incorporating the holy and traditional symbols of the Church and the office. Perhaps the most widely known of papal recreations is each Pope's unique ring. Upon death, the ring is immediately and ritually destroyed.

George Stuart has created five Historical Figures® of Popes. Two of Pope Alexander VI are depicted in highly formal attire. Now Mr. Stuart has prepared the following commentary detailing the meaning and importance of the vestments and regalia.     

The following information is excerpted from the new Borgia Series Wiki.

The regalia of the Pope on his coronation were to impress upon the communicants the manifestation of God’s splendor incarnatus in the person of his representative on earth. Although the earliest priests dressed simply, over time a grand elaboration evolved, especially at the highest levels of the clergy. Every aspect was symbolic. Over the centuries, popes commissioned many versions of vestments and regalia to be consistent with their views of simplicity or ornamentation. Many were destroyed or stolen during difficult times.

Reference Sources
The Historical Figure of Alexander VI was extrapolated from his images in Pinturicchio’s paintings in the Borgia apartment in the Vatican Palace, a portrait in the Uffizi Gallery, Florence and a bust of him from life in the Berlin Museum, and from other sources. As newly crowned Pope, he would show himself clothed very much as you see him here. These vestments would be changed often, as function and office required.

 

Papal Tiara
The Papal Tiara, triple crown tiara or triregnum was a primary symbol only of the Pope. Origins of the three crowns vary, but as the Trinity is held as the most significant aspect of the Roman Catholic faith, this could be its meaning. There are others. 

 

The Orb and Cross
Atop the tiara, the orb and cross finial represents God’s rule over the world.

 

The Coif

Under the Tiara is a white, close fitting cap, or more properly a coif. This was a standard article of dress for men. The cap kept the head warm and was often tied under the chin. It held the hair in place when heavier headgear was employed. And, as priests were tonsured, having the apex of their head shaved so the remaining hair appeared to be a form of crown, it served as protection against the elements as well.

 

The Cope and Vestal Hood

On the Back of the cope is the vestal hood. The origin of the cope was a Roman semicircular robe with a hood attached. Early Christians used this garment and gradually church leaders adopted it for ceremony and enhanced its decoration. The hood, no longer of practical purpose, was retained as a reminder of the garments humble origins. 

 

The Orphrey, Surpice and Stole

The decorative border of the cope or mantum is called the orphrey. In this case, it is a hagiography of the saints depicted with embroidery, jewels and embellishments. The cope is worn over a plain surpice, which has over it the stole, which is also encrusted with images and gold work.

 

The Cope or Mantum, and Morse

The cope and the more elaborate mantum used as elaborate clasp, called a morse to hold it together across the chest. It is often heavily ornamented with gold and gems.

 

The Papal Ring and Glove

During the Renaissance, it was fashionable to cut a slit in the third finger of the right glove to expose the Episcopal Ring. These rings symbolized a marriage to the Church and were given at consecration. Early papal rings were set with a precious stone. The name given at consecration was engraved on the mounting. It is traditional for communicants to kiss the pope’s ring in salute.  

Hagiography

The images are of saints, are called hagiography and are painted on sheets of silk covered in gold leaf and set in gold bullion couching and large paste stones.

 

The Mitre and Pectoral Cross

Here Alexander VI (1494) is shown at a ceremony wearing a mitre. The origins of the mitre in its recognizable form go back to the 13th century. Again, it has become ceremonial headgear for high clergy, loosely representing the wearer’s fealty to Rome and a secular as well as spiritual authority.
The pectoral cross hangs below the embroidered morse. Crosses from the simplest to the most ornamental were always part of the clerical dress. Just above the morse is a ‘C’-shaped band. This is the top of the amice, a large, plain napkin with a stiffened collar, which is tied around the neck to prevent chaffing by the edge of the cope. This image is missing the stole, which was unfinished when the photography was taken.

 

The Mitre, Cope and Lapplets

The back of the cope worn by Alexander VI shows the vestigial hood embroidered with the papal crest. The lapplets going over the edge of the cope are now decorative remnants, but in earlier centuries were possibly ties to hold the mitre or tiara in place. 

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A Global Dispute
In 1493, a dispute between Spain and Portugal arose as to which kingdom owned what part of the Americas then being discovered. It fell to Pope to decide who owned what.

The Line in the Sand
The story is that the pope had a map of the known world laid out in sand on the floor at the Vatican, and with a specially designed silver sword he drew a line down the center, thus separating the new lands of the Spanish and the Portuguese. Later, in 1494 the division was refined and codified in the Treaty of Tordesillas and announced in a papal bull.

Ornate Cross or Crucifix 
From time immemorial, bishops have carried a staff called a crozier, while popes always carried some form of a croix or crucifix. Alexander VI is shown with two styles of crosses. One shows the cross with equal, but very ornamental arms, all set with gold and stones - very popular in the 15th and 16th centuries.

 
Simple Cross, Uneven Arms

This cross is elegant and simple with three transoms or cross bars of different lengths. 

The Historical Figures shown here are from collections of George Stuart and Museum of Ventura County.  Photography by Peter D'Aprix. See all the Historical Figures at our website and visit the Museum of Ventura County to see the current exhibit of Historical Figures.

For information about events, museums, beaches, lodging and dining, visit the Ventura Gateway.